OBJECTIVES

1. Define accommodation and provide examples.
2. Define assistive devices and list five classifications.
3. Describe accommodations by changes in administrative practices, facilities, and instructional and curricular variations.
4. Define teacher controlled variables and list examples of how teachers can provide accommodations.
5. Describe general consideration in accommodation planning.
6. Describe specific classroom accommodations for different kinds of disabilities.

Accommodation may involve the use of modified instructional techniques, more flexible administrative practices, modified academic requirements, or any compensatory activity that emphasizes the use of stronger, more intact capabilities or that provides modified or alternative educational processes and/or goals.

Courts have addressed modification of the classroom environment, the curriculum, and the teacher's instructional behaviors in general terms. There are many possible problems: elementary and secondary levels are different, there are competing influences for ways to organize the curriculum, and most regular classroom teachers are interested in teaching subject matter content while special educators are interventionists, most often interested in remediation or correcting underlying problems.

While it may be true that some students with disabilities not only do as well or even exceed their peers in terms of achievement, many cannot. In the case of students with intellectual disabilities, the courts have already ruled that such students will benefit from social participation in a regular classroom. They are not expected to achieve at the same level as their peers, but to achieve individual goals based on reasonable expectations after assessment. Reasonable accommodations are determined on a case-by-case basis by evaluating obstacles or barriers interfering with the student's access to the facility, the classroom, instruction, or performance; and, determination of accommodations that can either remove or reduce the effects of obstacles or barriers.

• Accessible classroom/location/furniture
• Advance notice of assignments
• Alternative ways of completing assignments (e.g., oral presentation versus written paper)
• Assistive computer technology
• Assistive listening devices
• Auxiliary aids and services (note takers, lab or library assistants, readers, interpreters)
• Captions for film and video material
• Course or program modifications
• Document conversion (alternative print formats: braille, large print, tape, electronic, raised lettering)
• Test modifications
• Study skills and strategies training
• Time extensions
• Taped lectures

Administrative

If the administration supports integration, some major administrative innovations can be implemented (Wolak, York & Corbin, 1992), including personnel development, enrollment, pupil progress, and curricular variations. Personnel development can include important aspects, such as inservice training and release time to participate in planning activities. Administrative support fosters change in attitudes and behaviors of teachers. Enrollment procedures can be varied to aid integrated students. For example a change in policy could allow students to enroll for particular classes. Although all rooms may be accessible, some may be more conveniently located near exits and rest rooms, which could be of enormous benefit.

Pupil progress can involve such strategies as allowing modification in assessment, reporting grades, and the number of parental conferences or the nature of parental contact. By making voice mail accessible to parents, more frequent information about class activities can be available to parents each day.

Curricular variations can include strategies such as allowing class substitutions at the secondary level, allowing the use of material not on the state adoption list, and support the use of alternative methods within the classroom.

Facilities

• Accessible classroom. This would include access to the room by a walkway, ramp, or elevator.
• Location. Selection of rooms near toilet facilities, the cafeteria, and exits might be an important consideration for some students.
• Appropriate furniture. There is a range of considerations for students, including special desks, tables, standing tables, and others.

Instructional and Curricular Variations

Advance notice of assignments. At a minimum, students should have a syllabus that contains the assignments and when they are due.

Syllabus. A brief syllabus would be helpful, containing the objectives, materials and activities to be covered, and the assignments and test dates.

Topical Outline. The teacher may prepare a topical outline of the course that reflects the general flow of content. This would be predicated on key concepts and principles and the anticipated accomplishments of students as determined by the local curriculum guide. Some teachers do not provide students with a syllabus or other directions in the class, relying on daily assignments. Topical outlines would benefit all students, not only those with disabilities.

The advantage of a topical outline is that it assists upper elementary and secondary students in attempts to organize thoughts, notes, and information into a meaningful record to be used in directing them to the acquisition of course outcomes. The provision of a simple outline related to class lectures and intermediate objectives of units can be indispensable as a guide for study because it imposes order on factual information and data of daily lessons. Teachers who use more student-centered models would have other more detailed instructions.

Study guides. A more formal and demanding procedure than a topical outline requires the teacher to develop a guide, which may be designed with specific objectives, assignments, and evaluative criteria. An elaboration of the study guide may be a written learning contract that clearly identifies the major concepts to be outlined through study of specific content. Once such instruments are completed, they may easily be used with each student who subsequently takes the class. The guide might include the following sections:

• Specific objectives to be met.
• Period of time during which the activities will be completed.
• Specific products of study such as reports.
• Specific reading assignments and other activities.
• Evaluative criteria and sample items.

Study skills, as they are commonly called, are actually specific reading activities and other metacognitive strategies to study the content areas of the curriculum. Reading in textbooks is quite different from that which students typically encounter in basal series and other developmental materials. Most reading books are attractively displayed, have uniform type, are punctuated with colorful pictures and photographs, and have a predictability in content. Students are usually required to recall sequences and events about stories, make simple inferences, and relate descriptions after reading. Textbooks, on the other hand, are expository in nature, include many changes in typeface, are riddled with technical words and unfamiliar concepts, and are usually boring. The fact that texts are heavily weighted with facts and concepts, as well as being uninteresting, complicates the task of the learner. Study skills are essential for effective learning to occur in traditional subject matter presentations.

It is apparent that study skills stand at the apex of reading abilities, the last to be mastered. Using them, the student is able to locate information, interpret pictorial information, such as graphs and charts, and master the content. Unfortunately, some students are able to complete the successful acquisition of skills in phonics, structural analysis syllabication and word meaning but lack adequate study skills. Part of the reason for inferior development of functional reading abilities can be attributed to the fact that they are not emphasized in regular classes.

It is not uncommon to find some reference to study skills in texts dealing with secondary subjects and reading in content areas, although clearly the secondary teacher is concerned primarily with subject matter. However, the skills of thinking, reading, and writing are involved in many of the day-to-day tasks required of students in such classes. Any inclusion program at the secondary level would have to be concerned with not only the subject matter, but also the relationship between thinking and reading, the monitoring the reading process, and connections between thinking, reading, and writing. Specific programs may be used, such as directed reading and inquiry activities. Also, the well-known SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review) technique may be emphasized, along with specific training in reading texts, outlining, and notetaking.

Study skills typically include the use of the dictionary and reference materials, locating information, and the organization of information through note-taking or outlining. Study skills can be classified as mechanical and critical reading skills, which differentiate between reading in organized reading classes and reading in subject matter areas. Although both types are necessary for efficient learning, the tasks are quite different. They are as follows:
 
 

Critical reading is the ability to transcend the more literal, mechanical aspects of decoding and comprehension. Judgments are made, principles are identified, and generalizations are formed that relate to both the written passage and the experiences of the reader. Many students, with and without disabilities, have difficulty doing this because it requires what is commonly called "thinking skills" and is a higher level process that must emerge over a long period of time. There are two general types of study skills: primary skills for study assignments and primary skills for products. Assignments and the creation of products are the major endeavors of homework, lab work, and in-school study. Both types are used by students in meeting the demands of course requirements on a daily basis.

Alternative ways of completing assignments. Students can be permitted to provide oral presentations, written work, and performances and demonstrations as alternatives to traditional assignments and tests.

Time extensions. Providing more liberal time frames and deadlines for students is justifiable.

Taped lectures. Any lecture or formal presentation of content by the teacher can be taped and copies made available for students. Once collected, this can be retained as a reference resource for all students and can be used in consecutive classes. Textbooks, novels, and magazines and other publications are available on audiotape and can be obtained from many sources. Generally, students who are designated as blind or with learning disabilities are legally entitled to such services.

Exam modifications. In addition to performances and demonstrations, different kinds of examinations can be geared to the student's needs and limitations. Students who have difficulty writing can be given an oral examination or a problem to solve. For students who can take normal tests, time extensions can be provided to be sure they have an opportunity to finish. Alternative test formats (short answer, multiple choice, oral, and essay) can be matched with student needs. An examination can be administered in two or three parts and spread out over time.

Readers and scribes. Official readers and scribes can be employed as aides, if necessary, but even peer- tutors and volunteers can be used as readers and scribes.

Computers and calculators for exams. Some students may be able to perform more easily with a computer than with a pencil.  Others may be able to do better work with a calculator.

Glossaries and Summaries. A glossary can be useful in any kind of subject matter or content. Students are going to encounter many unfamiliar terms, and this is one way of modifying direct instruction that does not require a great deal of the teacher's time. Summaries of units or bodies of information, like an abstract, can also be helpful.

Cognitive Organizers. Like pre-reading questions, cognitive organizers can be used with a unit of instruction to prepare students for the "big ideas" to be examined in the course of study.

Visual Aids. Teachers can use technology and media in classrooms to support their presentations. A large number of teachers rarely use any form of media, including overhead transparencies, models, tapes, videos, or even pictures in books and magazines. For any child, and particularly those dependent on multiple sources of information, this is extremely detrimental to learning.

Hasselbring (1994) discussed the "curricular embellishment" approach using the existing curriculum and embellishing it with media. This permits the teacher to proceed as usual, which reduces tensions about making dramatic changes in the inclusion classroom to accommodate students. Hasselbring maintains that instructional opportunities can be enhanced with media, basing the approach on learning theory pertaining to the enhancement of listening comprehension.

Any kind of visual information presented by the teacher to accompany the lesson can support the major points presented, maintain attention, and improve comprehension. Graphics, actual scenes or dioramas, pictures, and large text fonts can facilitate understanding and comprehension, as well as help hold attention. The more inputs that are used, the better the chances that the student will be given structures for cognitive frameworks of knowledge.

Acoustical Treatment. Good acoustic listening conditions are vital for students with hearing loss and other students in order to enable them to make the maximum use of their aided residual hearing (Graham & Fraser, 1993). Poor classroom acoustics makes it difficult to understand speech and can lead to frustration and decreased on-task behavior. The effect of poor acoustics is obviously most detrimental to students with hearing impairments, attention disorders, and problems with comprehension, but also for pupils with good hearing but cognitive disabilities.

Crum and Matkin (1976) reported that virtually all classrooms are unacceptable for students with hearing disorders. Graham and Fraser (1993) reported that the reception of sound signals in students with multisensory impairments is so degraded in classrooms that there is a need for considerably increased intensity levels for students to hear the voice of the teacher. McCollister, Larrabee, and Ellis (1994) examined the parameters of sound in classrooms and reported that noise is common, making it difficult for students to attend to a teacher's spoken message. There is emerging evidence that classrooms create adverse learning conditions due to high levels of classroom noise (Blake, Field, Foster, Platt, & Wertz, 1991; Crandell, 1993; Flexer, Millin & Brown, 1990; Ray, Sarff, & Glassford, 1984).

An important acoustical element in the classroom is the distance between the teacher and the student. The farther apart the student and the teacher, the less the S/N ratio. While it might be recommended that this distance for students with hearing loss, as well as pupils with other conditions, should be no more than six feet (Ling, 1989), the constant movement of teachers and students in the classroom make this difficult to achieve and maintain.

The majority of classrooms fail to meet minimal recommendations for noise levels and reverberation times (Berg, 1993; McCollister, Larrabee, & Ellis, 1994). To improve the acoustical quality of classrooms, a list of renovations can be implemented (Berg, 1993). These include closing windows, replacing noisy light fixtures, isolating noise created by instructional equipment, reduction of ventilation noise, and the addition of carpets, drapes, and other materials to absorb sound (Crandell, 1993; Brase, 1988; Soyer & Houdet, 1986; Moodley, 1989). While this would be desirable, it is unrealistic to believe that most schools are going to use a limited school budget for renovations. An easier, better alternative is to have amplification systems in all classrooms.

Seatwork. The basic problem with seatwork is that teachers sometimes assign it but do not grade it. If students learn that seat work is unimportant, they may not put much effort into it. While grades are important in American education, they seem to be effective as the basic accountability measure for individuals. For those who are driven by the need to achieve, this strategy is successful. For students who do not seem to care, the motivation to succeed is absent. That is why group goals and group processes are sometimes recommended because students become engaged for social reasons.

Document conversion. Some students would benefit from materials that are presented in different forms, such as alternative print formats, large print, tape, electronic, and raised lettering.

Assistive computer technology. There are many kinds of assistive computer devices and software applications. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 9.

Auxiliary aids and services. The school may provide notetakers, lab assistants, library assistants, readers, and interpreters. Sign language interpreters have been used successfully in many public schools to serve students and classroom teachers. The interpreter can assist the teacher by modeling proper ways to deal with students, such as referring directly to the student rather than in the third person.

Assistive Listening Devices (ALD). Hearing aids, amplification systems, and personal sound systems can benefit many students. An ALD in the classroom can amplify the teacher's voice. The most common ALD is a personal FM system. The teacher wears a microphone and the student wears a receiving unit. However, it is also possible to employ a soundfield FM system that will amplify sound for all students in the classroom, giving maximal benefit to all.

Large Print and Magnification. While there are some books and materials published in large print, there are several types of magnification systems, ranging from magnifying glasses to computerized systems and copy machines that make print face larger. Ways to increase print size or modify reading include screen enlargement, talking screens, and larger screens. There are also more specialized systems to meet needs of students, including braille printing, video print enlargers (CCTV), and document scanning and conversion (OCR).

General curriculum alignment. A team might decide that the student can benefit from placement in general education and participate in some or all of the curriculum. Although the child may receive extra help and remediation, he or she would essentially be evaluated with the same instruments and processes as other children in the class.

Adapted curriculum alignment. At this level, the child's abilities and capabilities may be so discrepant from the peer group in the classroom that substantial alterations are required, such as adapting the curriculum and modifying requirements, expectations, and aspects of the environment. The child may work in the same curriculum strands as other students in the general education classroom, but at much lower levels in accordance with developmental ability.

Functional curriculum alignment. It may be recognized that the child cannot meet any expectations of the general education curriculum, in which case an entirely different program would be developed to meet the needs determined by the IEP committee. This might involve different instructional materials, enabling the child to participate in the classroom with peers, and even to work selectively in certain group activities, but the child will be expected to achieve functional goals and objectives.

Ford and colleagues (1989) outlined ideas generated by staff at Salem Hyde Elementary School in (1988) to consider when organizing instruction:

• Are there areas that can be used for various group sizes?
• Are the students with disabilities interspersed with their nondisabled peers?
• Has careful matching of partners been completed to promote positive relationships?
• Does the room indicate a sense of cooperation?
• Are materials organized to promote independence?
• Explore the building for other space to be incorporated into your schedule for instruction.
• Are there spaces for students to put personal belongings?

Examples:

• Kyeisha does not require and modifications during choral music in the tenth grade.
• John, a ninth grader, participates in homeroom the same as the other students by turning in his lunch money, responding verbally to denote presence, saying the pledge in unison, and putting handouts to be sent home in his backpack.
• Carlos, whose academic work in the eleventh grade often needs modifying, does not need modifications or support in the cafeteria.
• Ricardo, can participate in a creative painting lesson in art class with no modifications or support.
• Nathan listens to science lectures with his peers in the eighth grade.

Support may be from adults and/or peers. Caution must be taken when using adult support. Peers are natural sources of support and use of peer support should outweigh the use of adults. Peer support is not the same as peer tutoring. It is important to remember that support should be provided only at times of need. It is easy to get into the habit of providing support all day long, even when it is not necessary. Support needs change throughout the day and year.

Examples of peer support:

• Alice's friend assists her in pushing her wheelchair when she is tired or needs assistance with difficult terrain.
• John's friend provides verbal prompts in the boys locker room to encourage him to dress and undress in a timely fashion.
• Cooperative learning groups help Nathan study science facts for exams.
• Kyeisha's friend helps her in cooking by reading the words on the recipe cards, which are too difficult for Kyeisha.
• Ricardo's friends take turns in walking him to his bus in the afternoons.

• The classroom assistant rehearses a predetermined question with Alice so she can respond correctly during circle time as her friends do.
• The classroom assistant highlights important words and sentences in the science book for Nathan.
• The physical therapist attends PE with John during weight lifting to assist in correct use of weights and to provide instruction to peers and the PE teacher.
• The classroom assistant supervises and provides support for Stewart and 2-3 peers when making purchases in the school store.

• Nathan uses the same science textbook that his peers use plus the classroom assistant reads the chapters on to audio-tape for him to use in addition.
• John completes the same math computation problems but uses a calculator to assist in completing the assignment.
• Ricardo reads the same stories for reading class with additional picture clues to help him decode the words.
• Alice uses a pre-inked stamp to put her name on her work papers.

• Ricardo completes only every other problem on the math worksheet.
• Nathan circles the correct answer rather than writing the corresponding letter in the blank for multiple choice questions.
• Kyeisha circles all of the words from her spelling list on the English worksheet.
• John's written materials are enlarged or written in bold black letters.

Examples of substitution of materials:

• Alice tears pages from magazines to be pasted in her journal instead of drawing and writing.
• Nathan uses real coins and manipulatives to complete his math assignment instead of worksheets.
• John uses a computer to write his journal entries.

• Ricardo completes half the math problems required by his peers.
• John is given additional repetitions in weight lifting to strengthen his upper body.
• Nathan is given additional time to get dressed for PE.
• Kyeisha gets to read the Cliff notes of Huckleberry Finn rather than the complete book.

• Nathan takes his science tests orally.
• Alice points to her picture schedule when asked what activity she needs to prepare for next.
• Kay sings the songs using appropriate pitch, rhythm, etc. to indicate her knowledge of music.

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD)

The student may respond best in a structured, predictable environment, and clear rules and expectations are important, with consistency and known consequences. Structure and routines cultivates an environment that encourages the child to control his or her behavior and succeed at learning. Adaptations which might be helpful (but will not cure AD/HD) include:

• posting daily schedules and assignments
• calling attention to schedule changes
• setting specific times for specific tasks
• designing a quiet work space for use upon request
• providing regularly scheduled and frequent breaks
• using computerized learning activities
• teaching organization and study skills
• supplementing verbal instructions with visual instructions
• modifying test delivery

NICHCY notes that the classroom environment should be structured so that the program is consistent and predictable. Students learn more efficiently when information is presented visually as well as verbally. For carryover, similar programs should be developed for the home and the school.

Cerebral Palsy

Technological innovations have been developed in the areas of speech and communication, self-care, and adapting living arrangements and work sites. Activities for children with cerebral palsy recommended by NICHCY may include:

• speech and language therapy;
• occupational therapy;
• physical therapy;
• medical intervention;
• family support services;
• early education; and
• assistive technology.

Recommendations by NICHCY may include:

• regular speech, language, and auditory training from a specialist;
• amplification systems;
• services of an interpreter for those students who use manual communication;
• favorable seating in the class to facilitate speechreading;
• captioned films/videos;
• assistance of a notetaker, who takes notes for the student with a hearing loss, so that the student can fully attend to instruction;
• instruction for the teacher and peers in alternate communication methods, such as sign language; and counseling.

Down Syndrome

NICHCY recommends that schools offer parents special instruction in teaching their child language, cognitive, self-help, and social skills, and specific exercises for gross and fine motor development. It is also advised that there can be wide variation in the mental abilities, behavior, and developmental progress in of students with Down syndrome. Their level of retardation may range from mild to severe, with the majority functioning in the mild to moderate range. Due to these individual differences, it is impossible to predict future achievements of children with Down syndrome.

Serious Emotional Disturbance

According to NICHCY, behavior modification is most widely used to help children with serious emotional disturbance, but there are other techniques that are also successful and may be used in conjunction with behavior modification, such as Life Space Intervention and Conflict Resolution. In some cases, too, depending on the condition, physicians may employ some medication therapy. The IEP may also include psychological or counseling services. It is also pointed out by NICHCY that there is growing recognition that families, as well as their children, need support, respite care, intensive case management services, and a multi-agency treatment plan.

Epilepsy

Depending on the type of seizure or how often they occur, some children may need additional assistance to help them keep up with classmates. Assistance can include adaptations in classroom instruction, first aid instruction on seizure management to the student's teachers, and counseling, all of which should be written in the IEP.

School personnel and the family should work together to monitor the effectiveness of medication as well as any side effects. Children and youth with epilepsy must also deal with the psychological and social aspects of the condition.

Learning Disabilities

According to NICHCY, the following strategies have been effective with some students who have learning disabilities:

• Capitalize on the student's strengths;
• Provide high structure and clear expectations;
• Use short sentences and a simple vocabulary;
• Provide opportunities for success in a supportive atmosphere to help build self-esteem;
• Allow flexibility in classroom procedures (e.g., allowing the use of tape recorders for note-taking and test-taking when students have trouble with written language);
• Make use of self-correcting materials, which provide immediate feedback without embarrassment;
• Use computers for drill and practice and teaching word processing;
• Provide positive reinforcement of appropriate social skills at school and home; and
• Recognize that students with learning disabilities can greatly benefit from the gift of time to grow and mature.

According to NICHCY, in teaching persons with mental retardation, it is important to:

• Use concrete materials that are interesting, age-appropriate, and relevant to the students;
• Present information and instructions in small, sequential steps and review each step frequently;
• Provide prompt and consistent feedback;
• Teach these children, whenever possible, in the same school they would attend if they did not have mental retardation;
• Teach tasks or skills that students will use frequently, in such a way that students can apply the tasks or skills in settings outside of school; and
• Remember that tasks that many people learn without instruction may need to be structured, or broken down into small steps or segments, with each step being carefully taught.

According to NICHCY, classroom arrangements must take into consideration students' needs for medications, special diets, or special equipment. Adaptive aids and equipment may include: wheelchairs, typewriters, headsticks (head gear), clamps, modified handles on cups and silverware, and communication boards. Computerized communication equipment and specially built vocational equipment also play important roles in adapting working environments for people with serious movement limitations. Integration with nondisabled peers is another important component of the educational setting. Attending the same school and participating in the same activities as their nondisabled peers is crucial to the development of social skills and friendships for people with severe disabilities. Integration also benefits nondisabled peers and professionals through positive attitude change.

Spina Bifida

Successful integration of a child with spina bifida may only depend upon some specific concerns about mobility, addition of certain kinds of equipment, and concern about catheterization. Many children are able to do this for themselves. Otherwise, the educational needs of a child with spina bifida may be no different than those of most pupils.

Traumatic Brain Injury

According to NICHCY, to work constructively with students with TBI, educators may need to:

• Provide repetition and consistency;
• Demonstrate new tasks, state instructions, and provide examples to illustrate ideas and concepts;
• Avoid figurative language;
• Reinforce lengthening periods of attention to appropriate tasks;
• Probe skill acquisition frequently and provide repeated practice;
• Teach compensatory strategies for increasing memory;
• Be prepared for students' reduced stamina, and provide rest breaks as needed; and
• Keep the environment as distraction-free as possible.

There are many options for pupils with visual impairments.  Technology in the form of computers and low-vision optical and video aids enable many partially sighted, low vision, and blind pupils to participate in regular class activities. Large print materials, books on tape, and braille books are available. Students who have visual impairments combined with other types of disabilities have a greater need for an interdisciplinary approach and may require greater emphasis on self-care and daily living skills.

The goal of inclusion is to permit the child with a disability to thrive in a regular classroom environment. While the teacher may do many things associated with instruction and the curriculum, accommodations that range from policies of the school to adherence to ADA rules about construction and the use of assistive devices can facilitate inclusion. This benefits not only the effected child, but also other children and the teacher who can more easily interact in a pleasant, accommodating atmosphere.