The effects can be measured
in terms of student attitudes toward school. The National
Center for Education Statistics (1995) reported that many secondary
students characterize high school as having uncaring and poor teachers
and unfair discipline. About 25% believed teachers are not interested in
students, and 33% said teachers would not listen to them. The main reason
reported for leaving school by dropouts was they did not like school (58%
male and 44% female), many of them reporting having conflicts with teachers.
Schumaker and Deshler (1995) contend that enrollments of students with
disabilities in regular classes of the secondary school continue to result
in high rates of failure and dropping out, apparently for social reasons.
Expecting regular classroom teachers to deal with the needs of students
with disabilities by modification of the curriculum,
space, and instructional methods will likely be a problem under traditional
organizational arrangements.
The instructional challenge to any teacher is to make subject matter as relevant to students as possible. In the past, resource room teachers have attempted to assist mainstream teachers to organize instruction for special education students, but more often they worked directly with the students, either presenting alternative instruction of some sort or providing tutorial assistance.
Although specific graduation requirements vary from one state to another, the typical course of study is about 22 credits earned in grades 9-12 to meet minimum requirements and qualify for graduation. A typical sequence might look like this:
GRADE 9
English 9 - 1 full year
Social 9 - 1 full year
Science 9 - 1 full year
Algebra/Transition Math
- 1 full year
Physical Education 9 - 1
full year
Keyboarding I - 1/2 semester
GRADE 10
English 10 - 1 full year
American History - 1 full
year
Physical Education/Health
10 - 1 full year
GRADE 10-12
Science Electives - 1 = 2
semesters
Math Electives - 1 = 2 semesters
Other Electives (grades
9-12) - 7 = 14 semesters
GRADE 11
Communications - 1/2 semester
American Literature/Technical
Writing - 1/2 semester
World History - 1/2 semester
World Geography/Affairs
- 1/2 semester
GRADE 12
English: One of four options
- 1 full year
Social Studies: American
Government - 1/2 semester
and American Political System.
- 1/2 semester
Health - 1/2 semester
English and language arts
The language arts curriculum at the secondary level is less concerned with reading instruction and writing. There is commonly a succession of courses that cover the college-bound content or alternative courses with a more practical emphasis. In some schools there have been attempts to integrate English with other subjects, such as history and science. There have also been variations or tracks: regular, practical, advanced placement, and vocational.
Science
The traditional course sequence for science for college preparation has been as follows:
9 General science
10 Biology
11 Chemistry
12 Physics
The pattern was established for college bound students, but all students are required to take a prescribed number of courses, more in recent years due to "high standards" in the curriculum. There are also Advanced Placement (AP) and honors courses for the more academically talented. Attempts have been made to integrate science with other subjects, most notably the attempts of the National Science Foundation.
Mathematics
The traditional mathematics program is for college preparation and follows this sequence:
Grade 9 - General math
or algebra
Grade 10- Geometry
Grade 11- Advanced Algebra
Grade 12- Trigonometry/pre-calculus
Change in recent years has been an attempt to alter the way mathematics is taught, being more action-relevant, including the introduction of computers and electronic calculators. Although most students are able to demonstrate competency in computational skills, the overwhelming majority is incapable of solving problems requiring several successive steps (Dossey et al. 1988). This has caused a closer examination of teaching and the school curriculum, with recommendations for changes in curricula, teaching methodologies, and assessment techniques (Steen, 1989).
The reason students do well in computation is because that is what they are taught. Math is dependent upon feedback and corrective learning, more so than subjects dependent upon reading and memorization, although teaching strategies in mathematics often emphasize teaching by telling, rote, and memorization of rules. If students miss key concepts in mathematics and sufficient practice in applications, failure may be certain because the foundation for future learning is absent. There have been many recommendations to reform how mathematics is taught.
Social studies
Social studies commonly includes the following sequence:
Grade 9 - Citizenship
Grade10- World history
Grade11- Problems of the
American Government
In most schools, teachers prefer working with the college bound and resist teaching the "lower" tracks. The vocational programs are often seen as the "dumping grounds" for those without academic talent (GAO, 1992), although even in the vocational programs the teachers seem to prefer students with more academic talent.
A rather bleak picture has been painted about the nature of secondary school instruction. The subject-centered curriculum and the tradition of the lecture have been indicted for insensitivity to individual needs. There have been attempts at more student-centered approaches and modifications of various types, including more small group or individualized activities.
The instructional tasks of the teacher and the ability of students to profit from instruction depend on the quality of presentation and the ability for everyone to hear and understand. Many students who are disruptive, withdrawn, frustrated, or resigned to failure may be unable to see and hear clearly in the classroom, in addition to being generally disinterested. Therefore, modifications must be based on changing the teacher's presentation.
Assuming that opportunity and motivation are high, the process can, nonetheless, be undermined by poor instruction. Assuming instructional quality to also be high, any environmental problem can cause the process to collapse, notably noise and lack of visual cues. Instructional strategies---deductive and inductive methods, lectures, questions, and practice, and group and discussion methods---are critically dependent upon the ability to hear and to see clearly.
Subjects at the secondary level are often based on simplified instruction by the teacher but governed by textbooks that contain stifling content, sources of information that are incoherent within the learner's experiences.
Knowledge in Isolation
A major problem of the current curriculum is both "..the psychology experiment and the school curriculum focus on memory for isolated concepts and facts, thereby fragmenting learning to such a degree that results are inapplicable in authentic real- world contexts" (Iran-Nejad & Marsh, 1993). The two assumptions in current educational theory and practice are: (a) knowledge is a separate product (Iran-Nejad & Marsh, 1993) and (b) knowledge should be simplified and isolated (Iran-Nejad & Ortony, 1984). The first assumption is based on the premise that knowledge exists separately from the central nervous system or the mind and, thus, can exist in some complete form outside the student, where it can be transferred, stored, and reproduced later in the brain. The typical school curriculum is based on such a structure; important knowledge is often stated in behavioral objectives. The second assumption implies that complex knowledge can be learned simply by breaking it into pieces for easy consumption by learners.
Compartmentalized Curriculum
Separated by disciplines, mathematics is unrelated to science, science is unrelated to language arts, and so forth, and each "subject" becomes isolated and distinct as bodies of information to be memorized independently. And the simplification process does not end there. Teachers are separated into departments by discipline and pupils are grouped on the basis of ability and tracked through the system.
In the traditional classroom the child is not permitted to use whole-experiences or learn dynamically but is often limited to narrow "active" processes: concentrating to pay attention, posing self-questions or creating mnemonics, and following a predictable path to the correct answers.
Viewing traditional teaching from the child's point of view, classroom learning is mysterious, confusing, and arbitrary. As Pechman (1992) notes: ". . . schools try to teach children to use the formal tools of academic disciplines---vocabulary, mathematical formulas, dictionaries, scientific procedures---but many children find few opportunities outside of school to practice what they are taught. The resulting inauthenticity of classroom activity makes it difficult for children to see how school learning applies to their lives" (p. 33).
The quality of a student's
education is the result of the school learning environment and the importance
attached to education by the student and his or her family. The learning
climate of the school can have significant impact on students, depending
upon teachers' attitudes and behaviors and those of peers. Obviously if
students come prepared to learn, they will have a better experience, but
the environment must be conducive to learning through encouragement and
support.
| Students With Intellectual Disabilities
A Resource Guide for Teachers: Fostering Inclusion In addition to the many things that teachers already
do to foster a positive classroom environment, you might find some of these
To create a positive classroom environment:
Source: Part of a website page Minstry of Education British Columbia, Canada |
Topical Outlines
A topical outline is a simple device that can provide significant information to students and parents. Clarifying what content will be covered in a unit or section is easily done by these methods.
Glossaries and Summaries A glossary can be useful in any kind of subject matter or content. Students are going to encounter many unfamiliar terms, and this is one way of modifying direct instruction that does not require a great deal of the teacher's time.
Cognitive Organizers
Like pre-reading questions,
cognitive organizers can be used with a unit of instruction to prepare
students for the "big ideas" to be examined in the course of study.
|
The VISTA process includes four major activities:
|
Acoustical Treatment
A good acoustical treatment or amplification of the teacher's voice in the classroom can do much to improve clarity and understanding. This is especially effective in secondary classrooms, which are larger and may have more students.
Portfolios may consist of audiotapes, videotapes, written works, artwork, sculpture, photographs and many other forms. An active portfolio assessment will soon take up much space, requiring considerations to be made about how long items are kept. As technology is becoming more available and affordable, it is possible to store many items in a secondary format, such as videotape or digitized video. Sophisticated development of assessment items may also improve delivery and use of items for teachers (Price & Marsh, 1995).
Attending to lectures/discussions
The student's primary task is to sit, look at the teacher, and remain attentive. As students get older, they seem to be able to do this more skillfully. Although elementary teachers talk a lot, they cannot hold the attention of all pupils for long periods of time. A lot of group activities and seatwork are used to good measure. However, at the secondary level the expectations are that students will endure several hours of lecture-type instruction and most can do it rather well. Those who cannot conform to expectations will be easily noticed. Such factors as the tolerance of teachers and the norms for classroom disruption determine whether students who have problems attending will be punished or reprimanded for certain unacceptable behaviors. Students who exceed the limits willfully or who appear to be disrespectful, disinterested, or glib will attract the attention of students and teachers, and they may be punished. Part of the problem is that this may change from class to class. Some teachers are much less tolerant of the same behaviors that are acceptable in another classroom.
This also highlights the main problem for the adjustment of a lot of pupils with disabilities at the secondary level. In the elementary grades there are work stations, work centers, small groups, and a variety of activities. In many secondary classrooms there is just one large class listening to (or watching) the teacher. It is in this situation that most problems can be expected for many students with disabilities, those who cannot understand what the teacher is talking about or who cannot pay attention for a class period or enter into classroom discussions. Although the courts have ruled that teachers must adjust their instruction to accommodate such differences, many teachers will regard this as totally inappropriate. Many teachers who do not know how to organize instruction any other way do not consider the fact that the classroom could be organized differently, such as using learning centers instead of lecture.
Students are usually expected to maintain notes on classroom activities, although there may be little effort to teach students how and why notes are taken, A clear record of salient point of classroom discussion can be very useful for learning and preparation for performance. Many students will not be able to take notes because of a variety of problems. Alternatives may be used, such as having someone share notes with the student or by making tape recordings. Both of these techniques are less than satisfactory due to the unreliability of note-takers and the fact that some teachers dislike being recorded. Also, tape recordings are not helpful because the student has to literally listen to the entire class all over again, like sitting through class twice.
If educators question the value of letter grades or take the position that letter grades should not conform to the bell curve, they are vulnerable to the criticism of attempting to lower standards. To assure that there is a spread among scores, many teachers revert to a very complex system of awarding points, including neatness, promptness, and subjective criteria, none of which relate to what a student knows. For students with disabilities, due to the IEP, it should be possible to insist that the student's performance be listed in terms of progress toward specific objectives, which could be a list of skills or checklist, portfolios, participation in class discussion, class projects, oral reports, anecdotal records of student performance, daily logs of student activities, and modified tests.
Teachers and parents will be concerned about how students will be evaluated in the classroom, especially with respect to grading practices, and if the IEP will be used as a method to evaluate the teacher. Should schools prohibit letter grades for students by using the IEP to state alternative assessment? Children with an IEP have specified activities that must be pursued, so if the child fails, who is at fault? Does a letter grade reflect the teacher's opinion, measured differences among students in the same class, schoolwide standards and norms, or individualized accomplishment on criterion-referenced examinations? Are written examinations the only valid way of determining performance, or should alternative assessment measures be accepted? Should students with disabilities, who are given consultation and mentoring through some type of enrichment and/or academic support program, be allowed to make the same grades as students who receive no special assistance? Should students with disabilities be required to compete with nondisabled peers? Does the IEP, which determine the expected outcomes, dictate a grade if objectives are met?
In a study of sixth and eighth-grade mainstreamed students, Selby and Murphy (1992) examined the tests and letter grades used by teachers and found that students tended to feel helpless in attempts to earn high grades but blamed themselves for the low grades they received. Putnam (1992) examined 360 teacher-made tests used in English, math, science, and social studies in junior high and discovered the most frequent type of question was knowledge level asked in a multiple choice format.
The school should assure that the grading an testing procedures employed do not reflect the child's disability and that the child has ample opportunity to learn the skills and to demonstrate competence, even if through alternative means.
By providing students with comprehensive learning guides, a student may progress through a curriculum at his or her own rate. Not bound by the class schedule, an advanced student can move quickly and get onto more advanced subject matter. For those with slower paces, the flexibility of deadlines for marking progress and completing assignments reduces stress and anxiety. While this may be more useful in schools where some form of block scheduling is used, it can be used in a traditional high school setting. Built into the guide would be all assignments, activities, explanations, and even ways to complete specific tasks, such as meeting with peer groups, small groups, and completing individual activities.
Year-Round Schooling
Year-round education is an alternative to the traditional nine-month school year, partly for economic reasons. While school enrollments at the elementary level are increasing, communities are much less willing to support tax increases to provide sufficient buildings. By adopting a year-round model, schools can offer education more economically and not need to build new facilities. This may provide more options for families of children with disabilities who may plan activities over 12 months instead of only nine.
The School Within a School
Especially popular in large schools, the school is actually organized as if there are several independent schools that happen to share the same facility. Each "school" has the flexibility to have its own curriculum, personnel, and way of organizing. The students may spend a number of years with the same peers and the same teachers, developing a sense of community. Other options can be used within this context, depending on each "school," including individualization, continuous progress, and adjusting for needs of pupils with disabilities (see McLeod, 1996). This model can be useful at the secondary level for accommodating the needs of many students with disabilities.
Vocational success seems to be an implied promise of American education. All students are encouraged to remain in school with the expectation that on entering the work force, their potential for earned income will have a direct positive relationship to the number of years spent in school. There is a relationship between employment and years in school, better than that between employment and academic achievement, but the ability to obtain and hold a job is more directly related to other factors. For many students, possession of a diploma merely assures entrance to more advanced training that will ultimately lead to employment. Many other students will receive virtually all training for an occupation from an employer after being hired. The diploma is a device used to screen applicants, but it does not really represent any particular universal skills.
The problems of skills have been considered by a number of groups and agencies. The common goals promoted by the U.S. Department of Labor, called SCANS, for the Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS, 1991), have been used in vocational programs to address the needs of a new era. SCANS indicates that workers in the new economy must be able to do the following:
Due to the increasing demands for skills and the disappearance of high paying low-skilled jobs, the School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 was passed to consolidate employment and training legislation grants for states. School-to-work is a new vision of vocational training for secondary schools that uses a comprehensive, community-wide effort to assist students prepare for careers.
Apprenticeships
Drawing inspiration from Europe, primarily Germany, there are attempts to develop youth apprenticeship programs that offer relevant, work-based learning to noncollege-bound youth. Unlike a work experience program, this program intends to connect students to future employers, prepare high-skill jobs with a combination of courses and work experiences, and provide a full- time job at graduation.
There have been discussions in recent years about adopting a program of skill certification to be imposed on high schools, a part of the reform movement that would put meaning into the diploma. In other words, in addition to a diploma, a student would earn a certificate specifying competencies he or she can offer an employer. The problem with this is jobs skills change so rapidly it is not very practical. This is essentially what happens in apprenticeship programs, but the employer is responsible for much of the skill training.
Many jobs that exist today will disappear. Many that will exist are yet unknown. It is clear that persons who may be able to secure employment will need more technical skills. For students with disabilities, there is a danger that many will be technologically obsolete in the work force. Jobs that many such persons now hold will be replaced by automation, and there will be competition for these jobs from workers who have no disabilities.
The shifting nature of the work force is a problem for vocational education and the required equipment is expensive, then suddenly obsolete. Whereas American history courses or trigonometry will remain relatively unchanged, the latest vocational training will use equipment and software that will be out of date in a year or so. Technological changes can rapidly eliminate many jobs and rapidly create a demand for new one, which causes the school to be out of step with the job market. Vocational education must continuously change to meet changing demands. This is difficult and expensive.
Another problem is that vocation education, and career education to some extent, is stigmatized by the types of students who have been placed in vocational programs. Resnick and Wirtz (1996) reported that in 1990, students in vocational tracks took less coursework in English, history, social studies, math, science, languages, and computer science than students in academic programs, and half of the vocational students took remedial mathematics.
Without strong support students with minimal academic competency will not necessarily fare any better in vocational education than in the general curriculum. Some aspects of the vocational curriculum can be exceedingly technical and complex, and much more difficult than some of the content in regular academic classes.
The types of settings in which vocational programming may exist dictates what kinds of jobs will be included in the vocational training efforts. Schools that are located in large, urban areas present different opportunities that those in sampler communities. The selection of vocational education models depends on demographic characteristics, commitment of the district to vocational education, available resources, and other factors. In the general, there are high-cost training programs that require the investment of large sums of monies and personnel. The low-cost programs may be more easily offered but may be of much less usefulness to students.
Objectives for Planning Vocational Programs
Vocational education should be available on a continuum of career education experiences provided for students. Appropriate prevocational experiences should be provided to prepare each student for placement in vocational education. Every student should have the opportunity to participate in regular vocational education programs to learn job-specific skills. Vocational assessment should be provided to determine the student's interests and vocational aptitudes. Related services should be provided as necessary to maximize potential for success in a vocational education program. Work experience options should be available to help students bridge the gap between the school program and work. Vocational counseling and job placement and follow-up services should be provided to assist students in securing and maintaining jobs suitable to abilities and interests. Appropriate work activities should be provided to develop work skills for students.
Transition services are outcomes oriented to plan for the transition from school to post-secondary activities, including post-secondary education, vocational training, integrated employment, supported employment, continuing and adult education, adult services, independent living or community participation. IDEA assures that this plan must take into account the student's preferences and interests.
While it is true that most students, with or without disabilities, are fuzzy about their futures beyond high school, it is critical that plans be made for those with disabilities for many reasons. Traditionally, secondary schools have assumed little responsibility for the preparation of any student for anything but college. U.S. school systems have a curriculum geared to serving college-bound youth, this despite the fact that about 30 percent of U.S. high school graduates matriculate to a 4-year college. The remaining 70% have no real job skills. In any event, the vast majority of students with disabilities will probably not attend college.
The percent of students with disabilities who have been out of school more than one year, and who are working full-time, is 29.2% and those working part-time is 17.2% (National Center for Education Statistics, 1995, p. 112). The average hourly wage earned is $4.35. The students with disabilities most likely to be unemployed are those with mentally retardation, emotional disturbance, orthopedic impairments, other health impairments, visual impairments, multiple disabilities, and deaf-bind. Only 17.3% of these former students live independently. The unemployment rate for those with severe disabilities is about 70 percent. People with disabilities require support and the more severe the disabilities, the more support they need, including personal assistance services, health care coverage, and transportation.
Transition goals in the IEP should provide education programs that teach practical daily living and socialization skills, as well as academic skills. As students near the end of their public school careers, they should have annual goals and objectives related to career education, vocational preparation and community living. As in other IEP's throughout the school years, the students and parents should be involved in goal setting. This may be particularly difficult for some parents who look forward to school completion with a great deal of anxiety. Nonetheless, parents have knowledge about the student that is critical.
According to the United States General Accounting Office (GAO, 1992), the American workplace is changing in response to international competition. Economic change, new technologies and the restructuring of work are resulting in worker dislocation and workers with greater technical skills. They must be versatile and able to adapt to changing conditions--by learning new skills, changing their roles in the workplace, working in teams, sharing management responsibilities, and solving problems. The GAO estimates that one in three youth aged 16 to 24, from among about one million new workers added annually, will not have the skills needed to meet employer requirements for entry-level, semiskilled, high-wage occupations, thus adding to the millions already in the labor market who lack necessary skills.
Probably because of an increased emphasis on academics and the fact that adolescents find vocational education to be socially unacceptable, secondary vocational education has been shrinking. Students are taking fewer vocational courses than in the early 1980's, there are fewer vocational teachers, fewer university programs training them, and fewer state employees work in vocational education. This trend continues even though total secondary enrollments are growing and the vast majority of students do not intend to go to college.
In response to these trends, President Clinton signed the School-to-Work Opportunities Act on May 4, 1994, which authorized funding through 1999 to plan and develop school-to- work programs. The legislation (Sec. 2) noted that "three-fourths of high school students in the United States enter the work force without baccalaureate degrees," and many lack "the academic and entry-level occupational skills necessary to succeed in the changing United States workplace, which is changing in response to heightened international competition and new technologies." Unemployment among U.S. youths is "intolerably high and earnings of high school graduates have been falling relative to earnings of individuals with more education." At the same time, "a substantial number of youths in the United States, especially disadvantaged students, students of diverse racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds, and students with disabilities, do not complete high school."
Adults with developmental disabilities should:
Most people with disabilities live with their families or in independent living arrangements and do not receive formal residential services, a dramatic departure from thirty years ago when many state institutions housed millions of Americans with disabilities. For example, of an estimated 7.2 million people with mental retardation, only 308,984 were receiving residential services as of 1993. The most common types of living arrangements are:
Congregate care--Residences owned, rented or managed by the residential services provider to provide housing for persons with disabilities, including care, instruction, supervision and other support.
Family foster care--A home owned or rented by an individual or family in which they live and provide care for one or more unrelated persons with disabilities.
Own home--A home owned or rented by one or more persons in which personal assistance, instruction, supervision and other support is provided as needed (Mangan, Blake, Prouty, & Lakin, 1994).
Many workers with disabilities are going to need considerable support and assistance if they are to maintain the quality of life indicated above. Most other workers are having the same difficulties due to new realities of the global economy.
Although IDEA requires the school to address planning for transition by age 16, the school and parents should begin planning for this transition in the elementary grades. For many children with disabilities, the future chances for gainful employment will be more limited than in the past. The typical former special education student out of high school more than one year is living with his or her family (68.9%) according to the National Center for Educational Statistics, (1995, p. 112). The IEP can be a good way to include important work-related skills early on and to plan transition to the community.
The United States is creating approximately 2 million new jobs each year, but unemployment and underemployment remain serious problems because the jobs that are created are not high paying or secure. At the same time as new jobs have been created, there have been massive layoffs of middle managers and college educated people. Between now and 2005, the U.S. Department of Labor projects that 30 percent of college graduates will be underemployed or unemployed, up 10 percent from 1990. It is imperative that students with disabilities have good vocational training, and they should have apprenticeship programs to increase their chances of employment. The best approach is to get job experience through internships and cooperative education.
For most people, regardless of their jobs, good manners, a work ethic, good grooming, and a pleasing personality are critical work skills. Except in times of downsizing, most people who lose their jobs do so because of personality conflicts or rule violations. In some cases it may be decided that students should attend sheltered workshops and work activity centers, where they may learn important skills. However, it is important to consider competitive employment in integrated settings.
Post-Secondary Transition Team
In general the transition team will have three general options: (1) transition to other schools, (2) transition to competitive employment, and (3) transition to supported employment.
The goal for most students will be an integrated setting for work, where persons without disabilities are also employed. Students should be involved in regular vocational and academic classrooms, actual work in the community, and vocational exploration. Integrated settings contain more typical conditions that promote the acquisition of skills a student will require to be successful in any future job. Some students should also be prepared for college entrance or post-secondary vocational training. Training can take many forms.
The post-secondary team functions much like other IEP teams. It is may be comprised of representatives from rehabilitation services, public health, community agencies concerned with employment, employment services, prospective employers, social security, and others, as necessary. The team's purpose is to plan for future settings and the associated, support, training, education, and evaluation a student will need in moving from the school setting to another. Goals and objectives will be determined, and evaluation of the processes will be included, as well as individuals and groups responsible for implementing the plan to achieve goals. Much of the information necessary for making planning decisions will come from persons outside the school, those with the expertise to assist in planning.
Various programs and activities may begin during school or shortly after school completion. These may be orientation experiences, career exploration, job training, employment evaluation, and special high school programming that is work related. There are many possibilities, each determined by local and state resource. Obviously, students residing in some communities will have a wider array of options than students in more rural areas. Nonetheless, there are several possibilities, and many of them are related to the various programs at the federal level. One of the most successful is cooperative education, a structured method of instruction whereby students alternate or parallel their high school or postsecondary studies, including required academic and vocational courses, with a job in a field related to their academic or occupational objectives.
Training at Employment Sites
Students develop skills for real jobs and learn appropriate work and social behaviors through interactions with co-workers that occur naturally in a work setting. There are many possible arrangements, like the work-study arrangements, so those students can spend part of the day at school and part of the day at work.
Students who begin to work during school are much more likely to adjust to full-time or part-time competitive employment when school is completed. Such experiences can prepare students for eventual employment, and in many cases the employment experience leads to a job where the student is employed part time.
Job Skills Curriculum
Schools can offer instruction and practice in the skills necessary to obtain jobs using existing vocational programs of the school and/or special programming directed at students with particular needs. Special work training programs have been developed in most high schools for many years, although vocational training has been for students without severe disabilities.
Originally to assist persons with severe developmental disabilities, supported employment services (The Rehabilitation Amendments of 1986, P.L. 99-506) are now available in every state for a wide range of clients. Finding that persons who entered sheltered workshops commonly never gained competitive employment, the client is, instead, placed in a competitive employment setting at the outset and learns work skills on the job. There is usually a high degree of involvement on the part of the client, who selects a job rather than being "matched" to one.
The student and the student's family can work with the transition team to look for something that takes into account the student's interests, not just the student's apparent skills or abilities. Skilled jobs and entry-level jobs that have a chance for advancement can be more easily targeted. If the student is successfully integrated into the job, the chances for long-term employment are good. Support can include a job coach, trainer, and other considerations in an employment setting. In determining adjustment and satisfaction, the emphasis should not necessarily focus on wages. Taken into account should also be living arrangement, family and social relations, and leisure activities.
These should be considered in the transition plan and used as indicators of adjustment. It may be, for example, those individuals with good jobs and fairly high wages may not be as "happy" or well adjusted as those who have good friends and a better quality of life as determined by other factors.
Some people with disabilities who are interested in going into business for themselves may qualify for federal assistance and low cost loans from the Small Business Administration (SBA).
Employment Services
There are currently more than 2,000 local Employment Service (ES) offices located throughout the nation. Helping job seekers with disabilities is a specific responsibility. Each office is required by law to have a specialist trained to work with persons with disabilities.
The Social Security Administration pays disability benefits under two programs: the Social Security disability insurance program and the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program. There are a number of special rules for persons who are blind. The rules recognize the severe impact of blindness on a person's ability to work.
The medical requirements for disability payments are the same under both programs and the same process determines a person's disability. While eligibility for Social Security disability is based on prior work under Social Security, SSI disability payments are made on the basis of financial need. And there are other differences in the eligibility rules for the two programs. Social Security disability insurance benefits may be paid to worker under age 65 who have disabilities. In this case, disability means a physical or mental impairment that prevents the applicant from working and is expected to last for at least 12 months or to result in death. Children age 18 or older who were disabled before age 22 also can receive monthly benefits when either parent becomes entitled to retirement payments or dies after having worked long enough under social security. Benefits continue as long as the condition prevents work.
Supplemental security income (SSI) makes monthly payments to people who are aged, disabled, or blind and have limited income and resources (assets). To receive SSI payments for disability, the applicant must meet the social security definition of "disabled" or "blind." To be eligible, the recipient must also meet other rules: live in the U.S. or Northern Mariana Islands, be a U.S. citizen or be in the U.S. legally, and, if disabled, must accept vocational rehabilitation services if offered. People may be eligible for SSI if they have never worked. People who receive SSI benefits can also qualify for social security if they are eligible.
Children and adults with disabilities may qualify for SSI payments. Eligibility is based on limited income and resources. States may add to SSI payments, and may also provide Medicaid, food stamps, and other services. According to the Administration, Disabled means a physical or mental disability that keeps an adult from working, a condition that is expected to last at least a year or to result in death. When deciding has a disability, Social Security examines how a disability affects everyday life. The basic publication for this is Social Security And SSI Benefits For Children With Disabilities (Publication No. 05-10026).
People who live in city or county rest homes, halfway houses, or other public institutions usually cannot get SSI checks. But there are some exceptions. Those who live in a publicly operated community residence serving no more than 16 people, may get SSI. Those living in a public institution mainly to attend approved educational or job training may get SSI.
The basic SSI check is the same nationwide. However, many States add money to the basic check. These include California, Delaware, Hawaii, Iowa, Massachusetts, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, Washington, and Washington, D.C.
The Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA)
The Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA), enacted in 1982 and amended in 1992, is the federal government's principal employment training program. The JTPA was created to prepare youth and unskilled adults for entry into the labor force and to afford job training to economically disadvantaged individuals and others facing serious barriers to employment who are in special need of training to obtain productive employment. Many individuals with disabilities meet the eligibility criteria. JTPA, administered by the Department of Labor, has a $4 billion annual budget, including the Job Corps, dislocated worker programs, and summer youth programs. JTPA is viewed as a relatively successful program because most of those who enroll in the program get jobs.
Vocational Rehabilitation
An agency in each state is responsible for the administration of the programs of vocational rehabilitation, supported employment, and independent living for persons with disabilities. The vocational rehabilitation program is designed to assist eligible persons with disabilities to achieve suitable employment. The supported employment program works with individuals with severe disabilities who require ongoing support services to enter or maintain competitive employment. The independent living program is concerned with persons who have severe disabilities. The purpose is to provide them with independent living in the community and in the home.
All of these programs are funded by both federal and state sources, with most of the funding coming from federal funds. Services provided are similar to the IEP, based on an individualized written rehabilitation program (IWRP) which is developed by the eligible person and a representative of the state agency. Services may include:
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Employers may not include unreasonable requirements nor unnecessary responsibilities and skills for a job. Employers are also required to make "reasonable accommodations" for employment access and job performance: